Vinegar and its Uses

Vinegar is a liquid consisting mainly of acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and water. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol byacetic acid bacteria.^[1] Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient. Historically, as the most easily available mild acid, it had a great variety of industrial, medical, and domestic uses, some of which (such as its use as a general household cleanser) are still promoted today.

Commercial vinegar is produced either by fast or slow fermentation processes. In general, slow methods are used with traditional vinegars, and fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of months or a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria. Fast methods add mother of vinegar (bacterial culture) to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in 20 hours to three days. With those fast processes, commercial vinegar contains residual alcohol.

Uses:

Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation, in particular in picklingprocesses, vinaigrettes, and other salad dressings. It is an ingredient in sauces such as mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is sometimes used while makingchutneys. It is often used as a condiment.Marinades often contain vinegar. In terms of its shelf life, vinegar's acidic nature allows it to last indefinitely without the use of refrigeration.^[23]

Condiment for beetroot – cold, cooked beetroot is commonly eaten with vinegar and other ingredientsCondiment for fish and chips (UK: chips; US: French fries) – in Britain, Ireland, Canada and Australia, salt and malt vinegar is sprinkled on chips. In Canada, white vinegar is also often used.Flavoring for potato chips (UK: potato crisps; US: potato chips) – many American, Canadian, British and Australian manufacturers of packaged potato chips include a variety flavored with vinegar and salt.Vinegar pie – a North American variant on the dessert called chess pie. It is flavored with a small amount of cider vinegar and some versions also contain raisins, spices and sour cream.^[24]Pickling – any vinegar can be used to pickle foods.Cider vinegar and sauces – cider vinegar usually is not suitable for use in delicate sauces.Apple cider vinegar – Usually placed on the table in small bowls or cups so that people can dip their crab meat into it. Also mixed with water and used to steam crabs.^[25]Substitute for fresh lemon juice – cider vinegar can usually be substituted for fresh lemon juice in recipes and obtain a pleasing effect although it lacks the vitamin C.Saucing roast lamb – pouring cider vinegar over the meat when roasting lamb, especially when combined with honey or when sliced onions have been added to the roasting pan, produces a sauce.Sweetened vinegar is used in the dish ofpork knuckles and ginger stew, which is made among Chinese people of Cantonese backgrounds to celebrate the arrival of a new child.^[26]Sushi rice – Japanese use rice vinegar as an essential ingredient for sushi rice.Red vinegar – Sometimes used in Chinese soups.Flavoring – used in the Southern U.S. to flavor collard greens, green beans, black-eyed peas, or cabbage to taste.Commonly put into mint sauce, for general palate preference.Vinegar – especially the coconut, cane, or palm variety – is one of the principal ingredients of Philippine cuisine.White vinegar can be used as flavoring in ham and beans.

Beverage

Several beverages are made using vinegar, for instance Posca. Other preparations range from simply mixing sugar water or honey water with small amounts of fruity vinegar to making syrup by laying fruit or mint in vinegar essence for several days, then sieving off solid parts, and adding considerable amounts of sugar. Some prefer to also boil the result as a final step. These recipes have lost much of their popularity with the rise of carbonated beverages, such as soft drinks.

Medical

Many remedies and treatments have been ascribed to vinegar over millennia and in many different cultures; however, few have been verifiable using controlled medical trials and many that are effective to some degree have significant side-effects and carry the possibility of serious health risks.^[27]

Possible cholesterol and triacylglycerol effects

A 2006 study concluded that a test group of rats fed with acetic acid (the main component of vinegar) had "significantly lower values for serum total cholesterol and triacylglycerol" and other health benefits.^[28] Rats fed vinegar or acetic acid have lower blood pressure than controls, although the effect has not been tested in humans.^[27] Reduced risk of fatalischemic heart disease was observed among human participants in a trial who ate vinegar and oil salad dressings frequently.^[27]

Blood glucose control and diabetic management

Prior to hypoglycemic agents, diabetics used vinegar teas to control their symptoms.^[27]Small amounts of vinegar (approximately 25g of domestic vinegar) added to food, or taken along with a meal, have been shown by a number of medical trials to reduce theglycemic index of carbohydrate food for people with and without diabetes.^[29][30][31]This also has been expressed as lower glycemic index ratings in the region of 30%.^[32][33]

Diet control

Multiple trials indicate that taking vinegar with food increases satiety (the feeling of fullness) and, so, reduces the amount of food consumed.^[34][35] Daily intake of 15 mL of vinegar (750 mg acetic acid) might be useful in the prevention of metabolic syndrome by reducing obesity.^[36]

Antimicrobial and medicinal

Vinegar was thought to be useful for treating infections in ancient times. Hippocrates(460–377 BC) prescribed it for curingpleurisy, fever, ulcers, and constipation; it was used by the ancient Egyptians to kill bacteria. When combined with honey to create oxymel, it was a common cough medicine in the ancient world. Vinegar also had multiple uses in ancient Babylon, where it was made from wine beginning around 5000 BC. The Babylonians used vinegar to preserve food and as a component of medicines.^[37]

Researchers at the Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC) in Seville, Spain conducted research on the antimicrobial activity of several food products, including vinegar. The following microorganisms were used in the study: S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, S. Enteritidis, E.coli0157:H7, S. sonnei, and Yersinia sp. Vinegar (5% acetic acid) showed bactericidal activity against all strains tested,^[38] which was attributed to its acidity.

The phenolic composition analysis of vinegar shows the presence of gallic acid, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, catechin, vanillic acid,caffeic acid, syringic acid, vanillin,syringaldehyde, p-coumaric acid, m-coumaric acid, anisaldehyde, epicatechin, sinapic acid,salicylaldehyde, scopoletin, veratraldehydeand o-coumaric acid.^[39][40]

The active ingredient in vinegar, acetic acid, can effectively kill mycobacteria, even highly drug-resistant strains. Acetic acid could therefore be used as an inexpensive and non-toxic disinfectant against drug-resistanttuberculosis (TB) bacteria as well as other stubborn, disinfectant-resistant mycobacteria.^[41][42]

See cleaning uses for further references regarding antimicrobial use.

Other medicinal

Applying vinegar to common jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts; however, placing the affected areas in hot water is a more effective treatment because the venom is deactivated by heat. The latter requires immersion in 45 °C (113 °F) water for at least four minutes for the pain to be reduced to less than what would be accomplished using vinegar.^[43] This does not apply to thePortuguese man o' war, which, although generally considered to be a jellyfish, is not; vinegar applied to Portuguese man o' war stings can cause their nematocysts to discharge venom, making the pain worse.^[44]

Vinegar has been shown ineffective for use against lice.^[45] Combined with 60% Salicylic acid it is significantly more effective than placebo for the treatment of warts.^[46]

Contrary to popular belief, vinegar cannot be used as a detoxification agent to circumventurinalysis testing for cannabis.^[47][48]

Potential hazards

Like other acids, the acetic acid in vinegar attacks the enamel of the teeth and will cause decay and sensitivity in the teeth. Like with other acids the recommendations are to minimize consumption, minimize time in the mouth, not swirl it in the mouth, and counteract the effects by using fluoride mouthwash or toothpaste^[49]

Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar tablets has been reported, and, because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized, they vary widely in content, pH, and other respects.^[50] Long-term heavy vinegar ingestion has one recorded case of possibly causing hypokalemia, hyperreninemia, andosteoporosis.^[51]

Cervical cancer screening tool

Diluted vinegar 3% to 5%, has also been tested as an effective screening tool forcervical cancer. Vinegar changes the color of affected tissue to white, making diagnosis by inspection possible, reducing by 35% the mortality for early detection against control group.^[52]

In traditional Islamic medicine

Ibn Sina, in his famous eleventh-century bookThe Canon of Medicine, mentioned several beneficial medicinal uses for vinegar, claiming that it was a powerful clotting agent, healed burns and skin inflammations, and it relieved headaches caused by heat. He also considered vinegar a good digestive supplement.^[53] Fourteenth-century Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya also mentions the merits of vinegar in his book, Al Tibb al Nabawi (The Prophetic Medicine). In this book, he claimed that wine vinegar helps against gastric inflammation and bile, and prevents the effects of toxic medications and poisonous mushrooms.

Scientific

The electrical conductivity of many materials increases as an applied external electric field increases in strength. This is known as the "second Wien effect" and Lars Onsagerinvestigated this effect using acetic acid solutions in 1934.^[54]

Cleaning

See also: Drain cleaner § Home remedy drain cleaners

White vinegar is often used as a household cleaning agent. Because it is acidic, it can dissolve mineral deposits from glass, coffee makers, and other smooth surfaces.^[55] For most uses, dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned.

Vinegar is an excellent solvent for cleaningepoxy resin and hardener, even after the epoxy has begun to harden. Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in the United Kingdom.^[56] Vinegar can be used for polishing brass or bronze. Vinegar is widely known as an effective cleaner of stainless steel and glass.

Vinegar has been reputed to have strong antibacterial properties. One test by Good Housekeeping's microbiologist found that 5% vinegar is 90% effective against mold and 99.9% effective against bacteria,^[57] though another study showed that vinegar is less effective than Clorox and Lysol against poliovirus.^[58] In modern times experts have advised against using vinegar as a household disinfectant against human pathogens, as it is less effective than chemical disinfectants.^[27]

Vinegar is ideal for washing produce because it breaks down the wax coating and kills bacteria and mold. The editors of Cook's Illustrated found vinegar to be the most effective and safest way to wash fruits and vegetables, beating antibacterial soap, water and just a scrub brush in removing bacteria.^[59]

Vinegar has been marketed as an environmentally-friendly solution for many household cleaning problems. For example, vinegar has been cited recently as an eco-friendly urine cleaner for pets.^{[60][unreliable source?]}

Vinegar is effective in removing clogs from drains, polishing silver, copper and brass as well as ungluing sticker-type price tags.^[61]Vinegar is one of the best ways to restore color to upholstery like curtains and carpet.^[59]

Vinegar also can help remove wallpaper. If the paper is coated with a mixture of vinegar and boiling water, it breaks down the glue for easy removal.^[59]

Agricultural and horticultural

Vinegar can be used as an herbicide.^[62]Acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems; the vinegar will kill top growth, but perennial plants may reshoot.^[63]